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Table K.1 describes various hard limits of PostgreSQL. However, practical limits, such as performance limitations or available disk space may apply before absolute hard limits are reached.

Table K.1. PostgreSQL Limitations

The maximum number of columns for a table is further reduced as the tuple being stored must fit in a single 8192-byte heap page. For example, excluding the tuple header, a tuple made up of 1600 int columns would consume 6400 bytes and could be stored in a heap page, but a tuple of 1600 bigint columns would consume 12800 bytes and would therefore not fit inside a heap page. Variable-length fields of types such as text, varchar, and char can have their values stored out of line in the table's TOAST table when the values are large enough to require it. Only an 18-byte pointer must remain inside the tuple in the table's heap. For shorter length variable-length fields, either a 4-byte or 1-byte field header is used and the value is stored inside the heap tuple.

Columns that have been dropped from the table also contribute to the maximum column limit. Moreover, although the dropped column values for newly created tuples are internally marked as null in the tuple's null bitmap, the null bitmap also occupies space.

PostgreSQL is a powerful, open source object-relational database system with over 30 years of active development that has earned it a strong reputation for reliability, feature robustness, and performance.

There is a wealth of information to be found describing how to install and use PostgreSQL through the official documentation. The PostgreSQL community provides many helpful places to become familiar with the technology, discover how it works, and find career opportunities. Reach out to the community here.

What is PostgreSQL?

PostgreSQL is a powerful, open source object-relational database system that uses and extends the SQL language combined with many features that safely store and scale the most complicated data workloads. The origins of PostgreSQL date back to 1986 as part of the POSTGRES project at the University of California at Berkeley and has more than 30 years of active development on the core platform.

PostgreSQL has earned a strong reputation for its proven architecture, reliability, data integrity, robust feature set, extensibility, and the dedication of the open source community behind the software to consistently deliver performant and innovative solutions. PostgreSQL runs on all major operating systems, has been ACID-compliant since 2001, and has powerful add-ons such as the popular PostGIS geospatial database extender. It is no surprise that PostgreSQL has become the open source relational database of choice for many people and organisations.

Getting started with using PostgreSQL has never been easier - pick a project you want to build, and let PostgreSQL safely and robustly store your data.

Why use PostgreSQL?

PostgreSQL comes with many features aimed to help developers build applications, administrators to protect data integrity and build fault-tolerant environments, and help you manage your data no matter how big or small the dataset. In addition to being free and open source, PostgreSQL is highly extensible. For example, you can define your own data types, build out custom functions, even write code from different programming languages without recompiling your database!

PostgreSQL tries to conform with the SQL standard where such conformance does not contradict traditional features or could lead to poor architectural decisions. Many of the features required by the SQL standard are supported, though sometimes with slightly differing syntax or function. Further moves towards conformance can be expected over time. As of the version 14 release in September 2021, PostgreSQL conforms to at least 170 of the 179 mandatory features for SQL:2016 Core conformance. As of this writing, no relational database meets full conformance with this standard.

Below is an inexhaustive list of various features found in PostgreSQL, with more being added in every major release:

• Data Types
  • Primitives: Integer, Numeric, String, Boolean
  • Structured: Date/Time, Array, Range / Multirange, UUID
  • Document: JSON/JSONB, XML, Key-value (Hstore)
  • Geometry: Point, Line, Circle, Polygon
  • Customizations: Composite, Custom Types
• Data Integrity
  • UNIQUE, NOT NULL
  • Primary Keys
  • Foreign Keys
  • Exclusion Constraints
  • Explicit Locks, Advisory Locks
• Concurrency, Performance
  • Indexing: B-tree, Multicolumn, Expressions, Partial
  • Advanced Indexing: GiST, SP-Gist, KNN Gist, GIN, BRIN, Covering indexes, Bloom filters
  • Sophisticated query planner / optimizer, index-only scans, multicolumn statistics
  • Transactions, Nested Transactions (via savepoints)
  • Multi-Version concurrency Control (MVCC)
  • Parallelization of read queries and building B-tree indexes
  • Table partitioning
  • All transaction isolation levels defined in the SQL standard, including Serializable
  • Just-in-time (JIT) compilation of expressions
• Reliability, Disaster Recovery
  • Write-ahead Logging (WAL)
  • Replication: Asynchronous, Synchronous, Logical
  • Point-in-time-recovery (PITR), active standbys
  • Tablespaces
• Security
  • Authentication: GSSAPI, SSPI, LDAP, SCRAM-SHA-256, Certificate, and more
  • Robust access-control system
  • Column and row-level security
  • Multi-factor authentication with certificates and an additional method
• Extensibility
  • Stored functions and procedures
  • Procedural Languages: PL/PGSQL, Perl, Python (and many more)
  • SQL/JSON path expressions
  • Foreign data wrappers: connect to other databases or streams with a standard SQL interface
  • Customizable storage interface for tables
  • Many extensions that provide additional functionality, including PostGIS
• Internationalisation, Text Search
  • Support for international character sets, e.g. through ICU collations
  • Case-insensitive and accent-insensitive collations
  • Full-text search

There are many more features that you can discover in the PostgreSQL documentation. Additionally, PostgreSQL is highly extensible: many features, such as indexes, have defined APIs so that you can build out with PostgreSQL to solve your challenges.

PostgreSQL has been proven to be highly scalable both in the sheer quantity of data it can manage and in the number of concurrent users it can accommodate. There are active PostgreSQL clusters in production environments that manage many terabytes of data, and specialized systems that manage petabytes.

Any questions?

The first place to go to for any questions on PostgreSQL is its world-renowned documentation which discusses how to use the database software in-depth.

We also have many mailing lists where you can connect and participate in the community, as well as many events and local user groups where you can connect with other users.

Our users us

Here in CAIXA bank we use Postgresql in mission-critical financial environments because - beyond being strategic for our business and Brazil - it has the quality to support our operations.

Clarice Coppetti, IT Vice President, CAIXA Bank, Brazil

Centroy has been using PostgreSQL from the start. We wanted the scalability that would hold up to an intense peak workload, along with built in features such as clustering to introduce greater levels of protection across multiple geographic sites.

Andrew Homer, Founder, Centroy

... just like the FeedLounge guys I prefer PostgreSQL, and it's the database we'll be using for all future applications here at Joyent.

Michael Koziarski, Joyent

"I can't say enough good things about PostgreSQL. From backups to application development to administration, PostgreSQL has been a joy to work with."

Noel Proffitt, City of Garden Grove, California

Postgres is a truly awesome database. When we started working on Launchpad I wasn't sure if it would be up to the job. I was so wrong. It's been robust, fast, and professional in every regard.

Mark Shuttleworth, Ubuntu Linux

What's a database project without statistics?

30+ Years Development

650+ Contributors

52,000+ Commits

55+ Local User Groups

1,500,000+ Lines of C

650+ Events

Millions of Happy Users

∞ Data Stored

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